diff --git a/api/api.go b/api/api.go
index 83510d8c5..a8f6ea724 100644
--- a/api/api.go
+++ b/api/api.go
@@ -1,5 +1,12 @@
+// TODO(adonovan): rename to package codespaces, and codespaces.Client.
 package api
 
+// For descriptions of service interfaces, see:
+// - https://online.visualstudio.com/api/swagger (for visualstudio.com)
+// - https://docs.github.com/en/rest/reference/repos (for api.github.com)
+// - https://github.com/github/github/blob/master/app/api/codespaces.rb (for vscs_internal)
+// TODO(adonovan): replace the last link with a public doc URL when available.
+
 import (
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
@@ -9,7 +16,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io/ioutil"
 	"net/http"
-	"sort"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 )
@@ -29,10 +35,6 @@ type User struct {
 	Login string `json:"login"`
 }
 
-type errResponse struct {
-	Message string `json:"message"`
-}
-
 func (a *API) GetUser(ctx context.Context) (*User, error) {
 	req, err := http.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, githubAPI+"/user", nil)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -44,6 +46,7 @@ func (a *API) GetUser(ctx context.Context) (*User, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -51,7 +54,7 @@ func (a *API) GetUser(ctx context.Context) (*User, error) {
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response User
@@ -62,8 +65,10 @@ func (a *API) GetUser(ctx context.Context) (*User, error) {
 	return &response, nil
 }
 
-func (a *API) errorResponse(b []byte) error {
-	var response errResponse
+func jsonErrorResponse(b []byte) error {
+	var response struct {
+		Message string `json:"message"`
+	}
 	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &response); err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error unmarshaling error response: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -86,6 +91,7 @@ func (a *API) GetRepository(ctx context.Context, nwo string) (*Repository, error
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -93,7 +99,7 @@ func (a *API) GetRepository(ctx context.Context, nwo string) (*Repository, error
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response Repository
@@ -104,14 +110,6 @@ func (a *API) GetRepository(ctx context.Context, nwo string) (*Repository, error
 	return &response, nil
 }
 
-type Codespaces []*Codespace
-
-func (c Codespaces) SortByCreatedAt() {
-	sort.Slice(c, func(i, j int) bool {
-		return c[i].CreatedAt > c[j].CreatedAt
-	})
-}
-
 type Codespace struct {
 	Name           string               `json:"name"`
 	GUID           string               `json:"guid"`
@@ -139,7 +137,7 @@ type CodespaceEnvironmentConnection struct {
 	RelaySAS      string `json:"relaySas"`
 }
 
-func (a *API) ListCodespaces(ctx context.Context, user *User) (Codespaces, error) {
+func (a *API) ListCodespaces(ctx context.Context, user *User) ([]*Codespace, error) {
 	req, err := http.NewRequest(
 		http.MethodGet, githubAPI+"/vscs_internal/user/"+user.Login+"/codespaces", nil,
 	)
@@ -152,6 +150,7 @@ func (a *API) ListCodespaces(ctx context.Context, user *User) (Codespaces, error
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -159,12 +158,12 @@ func (a *API) ListCodespaces(ctx context.Context, user *User) (Codespaces, error
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
-	response := struct {
-		Codespaces Codespaces `json:"codespaces"`
-	}{}
+	var response struct {
+		Codespaces []*Codespace `json:"codespaces"`
+	}
 	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &response); err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error unmarshaling response: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -199,6 +198,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceToken(ctx context.Context, ownerLogin, codespaceName s
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceToken(ctx context.Context, ownerLogin, codespaceName s
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return "", a.errorResponse(b)
+		return "", jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response getCodespaceTokenResponse
@@ -232,6 +232,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespace(ctx context.Context, token, owner, codespace string)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -239,7 +240,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespace(ctx context.Context, token, owner, codespace string)
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response Codespace
@@ -261,10 +262,24 @@ func (a *API) StartCodespace(ctx context.Context, token string, codespace *Codes
 	}
 
 	req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
-	_, err = a.client.Do(req)
+	resp, err := a.client.Do(req)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+
+	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error reading response body: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		// Error response is numeric code and/or string message, not JSON.
+		if len(b) > 100 {
+			b = append(b[:97], "..."...)
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to start codespace: %s", b)
+	}
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -283,12 +298,17 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceRegionLocation(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("error reading response body: %v", err)
 	}
 
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		return "", jsonErrorResponse(b)
+	}
+
 	var response getCodespaceRegionLocationResponse
 	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &response); err != nil {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("error unmarshaling response: %v", err)
@@ -297,14 +317,12 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceRegionLocation(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
 	return response.Current, nil
 }
 
-type Skus []*Sku
-
-type Sku struct {
+type SKU struct {
 	Name        string `json:"name"`
 	DisplayName string `json:"display_name"`
 }
 
-func (a *API) GetCodespacesSkus(ctx context.Context, user *User, repository *Repository, location string) (Skus, error) {
+func (a *API) GetCodespacesSKUs(ctx context.Context, user *User, repository *Repository, location string) ([]*SKU, error) {
 	req, err := http.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, githubAPI+"/vscs_internal/user/"+user.Login+"/skus", nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("err creating request: %v", err)
@@ -320,20 +338,25 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespacesSkus(ctx context.Context, user *User, repository *Rep
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error reading response body: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	response := struct {
-		Skus Skus `json:"skus"`
-	}{}
+	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
+	}
+
+	var response struct {
+		SKUs []*SKU `json:"skus"`
+	}
 	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &response); err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error unmarshaling response: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	return response.Skus, nil
+	return response.SKUs, nil
 }
 
 type createCodespaceRequest struct {
@@ -359,6 +382,7 @@ func (a *API) CreateCodespace(ctx context.Context, user *User, repository *Repos
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -366,7 +390,7 @@ func (a *API) CreateCodespace(ctx context.Context, user *User, repository *Repos
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode > http.StatusAccepted {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response Codespace
@@ -388,13 +412,14 @@ func (a *API) DeleteCodespace(ctx context.Context, user *User, token, codespaceN
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	if resp.StatusCode > http.StatusAccepted {
 		b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(resp.Body)
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("error reading response body: %v", err)
 		}
-		return a.errorResponse(b)
+		return jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	return nil
@@ -419,6 +444,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceRepositoryContents(ctx context.Context, codespace *Cod
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error making request: %v", err)
 	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
 
 	if resp.StatusCode == http.StatusNotFound {
 		return nil, nil
@@ -430,7 +456,7 @@ func (a *API) GetCodespaceRepositoryContents(ctx context.Context, codespace *Cod
 	}
 
 	if resp.StatusCode != http.StatusOK {
-		return nil, a.errorResponse(b)
+		return nil, jsonErrorResponse(b)
 	}
 
 	var response getCodespaceRepositoryContentsResponse
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/code.go b/cmd/ghcs/code.go
index 81dbdbb2c..19d76fadb 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/code.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/code.go
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-func NewCodeCmd() *cobra.Command {
+func newCodeCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	useInsiders := false
 
 	codeCmd := &cobra.Command{
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ func NewCodeCmd() *cobra.Command {
 			if len(args) > 0 {
 				codespaceName = args[0]
 			}
-			return Code(codespaceName, useInsiders)
+			return code(codespaceName, useInsiders)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -34,10 +34,10 @@ func NewCodeCmd() *cobra.Command {
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewCodeCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newCodeCmd())
 }
 
-func Code(codespaceName string, useInsiders bool) error {
+func code(codespaceName string, useInsiders bool) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -57,8 +57,9 @@ func Code(codespaceName string, useInsiders bool) error {
 		codespaceName = codespace.Name
 	}
 
-	if err := open.Run(vscodeProtocolURL(codespaceName, useInsiders)); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("error opening vscode URL")
+	url := vscodeProtocolURL(codespaceName, useInsiders)
+	if err := open.Run(url); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error opening vscode URL %s: %s. (Is VSCode installed?)", url, err)
 	}
 
 	return nil
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/create.go b/cmd/ghcs/create.go
index c3e8a24a1..7d5d59923 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/create.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/create.go
@@ -11,24 +11,33 @@ import (
 	"github.com/fatih/camelcase"
 	"github.com/github/ghcs/api"
 	"github.com/github/ghcs/cmd/ghcs/output"
+	"github.com/github/ghcs/internal/codespaces"
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-var repo, branch, machine string
+type createOptions struct {
+	repo       string
+	branch     string
+	machine    string
+	showStatus bool
+}
 
 func newCreateCmd() *cobra.Command {
+	opts := &createOptions{}
+
 	createCmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "create",
 		Short: "Create a Codespace",
 		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return Create()
+			return create(opts)
 		},
 	}
 
-	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&repo, "repo", "r", "", "repository name with owner: user/repo")
-	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&branch, "branch", "b", "", "repository branch")
-	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&machine, "machine", "m", "", "hardware specifications for the VM")
+	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.repo, "repo", "r", "", "repository name with owner: user/repo")
+	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.branch, "branch", "b", "", "repository branch")
+	createCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.machine, "machine", "m", "", "hardware specifications for the VM")
+	createCmd.Flags().BoolVarP(&opts.showStatus, "status", "s", false, "show status of post-create command and dotfiles")
 
 	return createCmd
 }
@@ -37,18 +46,18 @@ func init() {
 	rootCmd.AddCommand(newCreateCmd())
 }
 
-func Create() error {
+func create(opts *createOptions) error {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	locationCh := getLocation(ctx, apiClient)
 	userCh := getUser(ctx, apiClient)
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
 
-	repo, err := getRepoName()
+	repo, err := getRepoName(opts.repo)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting repository name: %v", err)
 	}
-	branch, err := getBranchName()
+	branch, err := getBranchName(opts.branch)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting branch name: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -68,7 +77,7 @@ func Create() error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace user: %v", userResult.Err)
 	}
 
-	machine, err := getMachineName(ctx, userResult.User, repository, locationResult.Location, apiClient)
+	machine, err := getMachineName(ctx, opts.machine, userResult.User, repository, locationResult.Location, apiClient)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting machine type: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -83,6 +92,12 @@ func Create() error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error creating codespace: %v", err)
 	}
 
+	if opts.showStatus {
+		if err := showStatus(ctx, log, apiClient, userResult.User, codespace); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("show status: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+
 	log.Printf("Codespace created: ")
 
 	fmt.Fprintln(os.Stdout, codespace.Name)
@@ -90,11 +105,67 @@ func Create() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
+func showStatus(ctx context.Context, log *output.Logger, apiClient *api.API, user *api.User, codespace *api.Codespace) error {
+	var lastState codespaces.PostCreateState
+	var breakNextState bool
+
+	finishedStates := make(map[string]bool)
+	ctx, stopPolling := context.WithCancel(ctx)
+
+	poller := func(states []codespaces.PostCreateState) {
+		var inProgress bool
+		for _, state := range states {
+			if _, found := finishedStates[state.Name]; found {
+				continue // skip this state as we've processed it already
+			}
+
+			if state.Name != lastState.Name {
+				log.Print(state.Name)
+
+				if state.Status == codespaces.PostCreateStateRunning {
+					inProgress = true
+					lastState = state
+					log.Print("...")
+					break
+				}
+
+				finishedStates[state.Name] = true
+				log.Println("..." + state.Status)
+			} else {
+				if state.Status == codespaces.PostCreateStateRunning {
+					inProgress = true
+					log.Print(".")
+					break
+				}
+
+				finishedStates[state.Name] = true
+				log.Println(state.Status)
+				lastState = codespaces.PostCreateState{} // reset the value
+			}
+		}
+
+		if !inProgress {
+			if breakNextState {
+				stopPolling()
+				return
+			}
+			breakNextState = true
+		}
+	}
+
+	if err := codespaces.PollPostCreateStates(ctx, log, apiClient, user, codespace, poller); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("failed to poll state changes from codespace: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 type getUserResult struct {
 	User *api.User
 	Err  error
 }
 
+// getUser fetches the user record associated with the GITHUB_TOKEN
 func getUser(ctx context.Context, apiClient *api.API) <-chan getUserResult {
 	ch := make(chan getUserResult)
 	go func() {
@@ -109,6 +180,7 @@ type locationResult struct {
 	Err      error
 }
 
+// getLocation fetches the closest Codespace datacenter region/location to the user.
 func getLocation(ctx context.Context, apiClient *api.API) <-chan locationResult {
 	ch := make(chan locationResult)
 	go func() {
@@ -118,7 +190,8 @@ func getLocation(ctx context.Context, apiClient *api.API) <-chan locationResult
 	return ch
 }
 
-func getRepoName() (string, error) {
+// getRepoName prompts the user for the name of the repository, or returns the repository if non-empty.
+func getRepoName(repo string) (string, error) {
 	if repo != "" {
 		return repo, nil
 	}
@@ -126,15 +199,16 @@ func getRepoName() (string, error) {
 	repoSurvey := []*survey.Question{
 		{
 			Name:     "repository",
-			Prompt:   &survey.Input{Message: "Repository"},
+			Prompt:   &survey.Input{Message: "Repository:"},
 			Validate: survey.Required,
 		},
 	}
-	err := survey.Ask(repoSurvey, &repo)
+	err := ask(repoSurvey, &repo)
 	return repo, err
 }
 
-func getBranchName() (string, error) {
+// getBranchName prompts the user for the name of the branch, or returns the branch if non-empty.
+func getBranchName(branch string) (string, error) {
 	if branch != "" {
 		return branch, nil
 	}
@@ -142,18 +216,19 @@ func getBranchName() (string, error) {
 	branchSurvey := []*survey.Question{
 		{
 			Name:     "branch",
-			Prompt:   &survey.Input{Message: "Branch"},
+			Prompt:   &survey.Input{Message: "Branch:"},
 			Validate: survey.Required,
 		},
 	}
-	err := survey.Ask(branchSurvey, &branch)
+	err := ask(branchSurvey, &branch)
 	return branch, err
 }
 
-func getMachineName(ctx context.Context, user *api.User, repo *api.Repository, location string, apiClient *api.API) (string, error) {
-	skus, err := apiClient.GetCodespacesSkus(ctx, user, repo, location)
+// getMachineName prompts the user to select the machine type, or validates the machine if non-empty.
+func getMachineName(ctx context.Context, machine string, user *api.User, repo *api.Repository, location string, apiClient *api.API) (string, error) {
+	skus, err := apiClient.GetCodespacesSKUs(ctx, user, repo, location)
 	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace skus: %v", err)
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace SKUs: %v", err)
 	}
 
 	// if user supplied a machine type, it must be valid
@@ -165,18 +240,18 @@ func getMachineName(ctx context.Context, user *api.User, repo *api.Repository, l
 			}
 		}
 
-		availableSkus := make([]string, len(skus))
+		availableSKUs := make([]string, len(skus))
 		for i := 0; i < len(skus); i++ {
-			availableSkus[i] = skus[i].Name
+			availableSKUs[i] = skus[i].Name
 		}
 
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("there are is no such machine for the repository: %s\nAvailable machines: %v", machine, availableSkus)
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("there is no such machine for the repository: %s\nAvailable machines: %v", machine, availableSKUs)
 	} else if len(skus) == 0 {
 		return "", nil
 	}
 
 	skuNames := make([]string, 0, len(skus))
-	skuByName := make(map[string]*api.Sku)
+	skuByName := make(map[string]*api.SKU)
 	for _, sku := range skus {
 		nameParts := camelcase.Split(sku.Name)
 		machineName := strings.Title(strings.ToLower(nameParts[0]))
@@ -197,8 +272,8 @@ func getMachineName(ctx context.Context, user *api.User, repo *api.Repository, l
 		},
 	}
 
-	skuAnswers := struct{ SKU string }{}
-	if err := survey.Ask(skuSurvey, &skuAnswers); err != nil {
+	var skuAnswers struct{ SKU string }
+	if err := ask(skuSurvey, &skuAnswers); err != nil {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("error getting SKU: %v", err)
 	}
 
@@ -207,3 +282,8 @@ func getMachineName(ctx context.Context, user *api.User, repo *api.Repository, l
 
 	return machine, nil
 }
+
+// ask asks survery questions using standard options.
+func ask(qs []*survey.Question, response interface{}) error {
+	return survey.Ask(qs, response, survey.WithShowCursor(true))
+}
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/delete.go b/cmd/ghcs/delete.go
index c357171d1..d37029753 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/delete.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/delete.go
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-func NewDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
+func newDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	deleteCmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "delete [<codespace>]",
 		Short: "Delete a Codespace",
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ func NewDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
 			if len(args) > 0 {
 				codespaceName = args[0]
 			}
-			return Delete(codespaceName)
+			return delete_(codespaceName)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ func NewDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Short: "Delete all Codespaces for the current user",
 		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return DeleteAll()
+			return deleteAll()
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ func NewDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Short: "Delete all Codespaces for a repository",
 		Args:  cobra.ExactArgs(1),
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return DeleteByRepo(args[0])
+			return deleteByRepo(args[0])
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -50,10 +50,10 @@ func NewDeleteCmd() *cobra.Command {
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewDeleteCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newDeleteCmd())
 }
 
-func Delete(codespaceName string) error {
+func delete_(codespaceName string) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
@@ -74,10 +74,10 @@ func Delete(codespaceName string) error {
 
 	log.Println("Codespace deleted.")
 
-	return List(&ListOptions{})
+	return list(&listOptions{})
 }
 
-func DeleteAll() error {
+func deleteAll() error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
@@ -105,10 +105,10 @@ func DeleteAll() error {
 		log.Printf("Codespace deleted: %s\n", c.Name)
 	}
 
-	return List(&ListOptions{})
+	return list(&listOptions{})
 }
 
-func DeleteByRepo(repo string) error {
+func deleteByRepo(repo string) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
@@ -146,5 +146,5 @@ func DeleteByRepo(repo string) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("No codespace was found for repository: %s", repo)
 	}
 
-	return List(&ListOptions{})
+	return list(&listOptions{})
 }
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/list.go b/cmd/ghcs/list.go
index 27b11d4fd..a19439296 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/list.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/list.go
@@ -10,32 +10,32 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-type ListOptions struct {
-	AsJSON bool
+type listOptions struct {
+	asJSON bool
 }
 
-func NewListCmd() *cobra.Command {
-	opts := &ListOptions{}
+func newListCmd() *cobra.Command {
+	opts := &listOptions{}
 
 	listCmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "list",
 		Short: "List your Codespaces",
 		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return List(opts)
+			return list(opts)
 		},
 	}
 
-	listCmd.Flags().BoolVar(&opts.AsJSON, "json", false, "Output as JSON")
+	listCmd.Flags().BoolVar(&opts.asJSON, "json", false, "Output as JSON")
 
 	return listCmd
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewListCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newListCmd())
 }
 
-func List(opts *ListOptions) error {
+func list(opts *listOptions) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ func List(opts *ListOptions) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting codespaces: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	table := output.NewTable(os.Stdout, opts.AsJSON)
+	table := output.NewTable(os.Stdout, opts.asJSON)
 	table.SetHeader([]string{"Name", "Repository", "Branch", "State", "Created At"})
 	for _, codespace := range codespaces {
 		table.Append([]string{
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/logs.go b/cmd/ghcs/logs.go
index 31af10dda..ea5531bac 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/logs.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/logs.go
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-func NewLogsCmd() *cobra.Command {
+func newLogsCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	var tail bool
 
 	logsCmd := &cobra.Command{
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ func NewLogsCmd() *cobra.Command {
 			if len(args) > 0 {
 				codespaceName = args[0]
 			}
-			return Logs(tail, codespaceName)
+			return logs(tail, codespaceName)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -34,10 +34,10 @@ func NewLogsCmd() *cobra.Command {
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewLogsCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newLogsCmd())
 }
 
-func Logs(tail bool, codespaceName string) error {
+func logs(tail bool, codespaceName string) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ func Logs(tail bool, codespaceName string) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("get or choose codespace: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, token, codespace)
+	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("connecting to liveshare: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/main.go b/cmd/ghcs/main.go
index 58037437a..bc9bc2c6b 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/main.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/main.go
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ func main() {
 	}
 }
 
-var Version = "DEV"
+var version = "DEV"
 
 var rootCmd = &cobra.Command{
 	Use: "ghcs",
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ var rootCmd = &cobra.Command{
 
 Running commands requires the GITHUB_TOKEN environment variable to be set to a
 token to access the GitHub API with.`,
-	Version: Version,
+	Version: version,
 
 	PersistentPreRunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
 		if os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN") == "" {
@@ -42,5 +42,5 @@ func explainError(w io.Writer, err error) {
 		fmt.Fprintln(w, "Make sure to enable SSO for your organizations after creating the token.")
 		return
 	}
-	// fmt.Fprintf(w, "%v\n", err)
+	fmt.Fprintf(w, "%v\n", err)
 }
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/ports.go b/cmd/ghcs/ports.go
index 09397af54..3e89eb984 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/ports.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/ports.go
@@ -19,48 +19,54 @@ import (
 	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
 )
 
-type PortsOptions struct {
-	CodespaceName string
-	AsJSON        bool
+// portOptions represents the options accepted by the ports command.
+type portsOptions struct {
+	// CodespaceName is the name of the codespace, optional.
+	codespaceName string
+
+	// AsJSON dictates whether the command returns a json output or not, optional.
+	asJSON bool
 }
 
-func NewPortsCmd() *cobra.Command {
-	opts := &PortsOptions{}
+// newPortsCmd returns a Cobra "ports" command that displays a table of available ports,
+// according to the specified flags.
+func newPortsCmd() *cobra.Command {
+	opts := &portsOptions{}
 
 	portsCmd := &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "ports",
 		Short: "List ports in a Codespace",
 		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return Ports(opts)
+			return ports(opts)
 		},
 	}
 
-	portsCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.CodespaceName, "codespace", "c", "", "The `name` of the Codespace to use")
-	portsCmd.Flags().BoolVar(&opts.AsJSON, "json", false, "Output as JSON")
+	portsCmd.Flags().StringVarP(&opts.codespaceName, "codespace", "c", "", "The `name` of the Codespace to use")
+	portsCmd.Flags().BoolVar(&opts.asJSON, "json", false, "Output as JSON")
 
-	portsCmd.AddCommand(NewPortsPublicCmd())
-	portsCmd.AddCommand(NewPortsPrivateCmd())
-	portsCmd.AddCommand(NewPortsForwardCmd())
+	portsCmd.AddCommand(newPortsPublicCmd())
+	portsCmd.AddCommand(newPortsPrivateCmd())
+	portsCmd.AddCommand(newPortsForwardCmd())
 
 	return portsCmd
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewPortsCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newPortsCmd())
 }
 
-func Ports(opts *PortsOptions) error {
+func ports(opts *portsOptions) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, opts.AsJSON)
+	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, opts.asJSON)
 
 	user, err := apiClient.GetUser(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting user: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	codespace, token, err := codespaces.GetOrChooseCodespace(ctx, apiClient, user, opts.CodespaceName)
+	codespace, token, err := codespaces.GetOrChooseCodespace(ctx, apiClient, user, opts.codespaceName)
 	if err != nil {
 		if err == codespaces.ErrNoCodespaces {
 			return err
@@ -70,7 +76,7 @@ func Ports(opts *PortsOptions) error {
 
 	devContainerCh := getDevContainer(ctx, apiClient, codespace)
 
-	liveShareClient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, token, codespace)
+	liveShareClient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error connecting to liveshare: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -82,17 +88,18 @@ func Ports(opts *PortsOptions) error {
 	}
 
 	devContainerResult := <-devContainerCh
-	if devContainerResult.Err != nil {
-		_, _ = log.Errorf("Failed to get port names: %v\n", devContainerResult.Err.Error())
+	if devContainerResult.err != nil {
+		// Warn about failure to read the devcontainer file. Not a ghcs command error.
+		_, _ = log.Errorf("Failed to get port names: %v\n", devContainerResult.err.Error())
 	}
 
-	table := output.NewTable(os.Stdout, opts.AsJSON)
-	table.SetHeader([]string{"Label", "Source Port", "Destination Port", "Public", "Browse URL"})
+	table := output.NewTable(os.Stdout, opts.asJSON)
+	table.SetHeader([]string{"Label", "Port", "Public", "Browse URL"})
 	for _, port := range ports {
 		sourcePort := strconv.Itoa(port.SourcePort)
 		var portName string
-		if devContainerResult.DevContainer != nil {
-			if attributes, ok := devContainerResult.DevContainer.PortAttributes[sourcePort]; ok {
+		if devContainerResult.devContainer != nil {
+			if attributes, ok := devContainerResult.devContainer.PortAttributes[sourcePort]; ok {
 				portName = attributes.Label
 			}
 		}
@@ -100,7 +107,6 @@ func Ports(opts *PortsOptions) error {
 		table.Append([]string{
 			portName,
 			sourcePort,
-			strconv.Itoa(port.DestinationPort),
 			strings.ToUpper(strconv.FormatBool(port.IsPublic)),
 			fmt.Sprintf("https://%s-%s.githubpreview.dev/", codespace.Name, sourcePort),
 		})
@@ -125,8 +131,8 @@ func getPorts(ctx context.Context, lsclient *liveshare.Client) (liveshare.Ports,
 }
 
 type devContainerResult struct {
-	DevContainer *devContainer
-	Err          error
+	devContainer *devContainer
+	err          error
 }
 
 type devContainer struct {
@@ -168,7 +174,8 @@ func getDevContainer(ctx context.Context, apiClient *api.API, codespace *api.Cod
 	return ch
 }
 
-func NewPortsPublicCmd() *cobra.Command {
+// newPortsPublicCmd returns a Cobra "ports public" subcommand, which makes a given port public.
+func newPortsPublicCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	return &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "public <codespace> <port>",
 		Short: "Mark port as public",
@@ -180,7 +187,8 @@ func NewPortsPublicCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	}
 }
 
-func NewPortsPrivateCmd() *cobra.Command {
+// newPortsPrivateCmd returns a Cobra "ports private" subcommand, which makes a given port private.
+func newPortsPrivateCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	return &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "private <codespace> <port>",
 		Short: "Mark port as private",
@@ -211,7 +219,7 @@ func updatePortVisibility(log *output.Logger, codespaceName, sourcePort string,
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, token, codespace)
+	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error connecting to liveshare: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -239,7 +247,9 @@ func updatePortVisibility(log *output.Logger, codespaceName, sourcePort string,
 	return nil
 }
 
-func NewPortsForwardCmd() *cobra.Command {
+// NewPortsForwardCmd returns a Cobra "ports forward" subcommand, which forwards a set of
+// port pairs from the codespace to localhost.
+func newPortsForwardCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	return &cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "forward <codespace> <source-port>:<destination-port>",
 		Short: "Forward ports",
@@ -275,7 +285,7 @@ func forwardPorts(log *output.Logger, codespaceName string, ports []string) erro
 		return fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, token, codespace)
+	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error connecting to liveshare: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -289,14 +299,14 @@ func forwardPorts(log *output.Logger, codespaceName string, ports []string) erro
 	for _, portPair := range portPairs {
 		pp := portPair
 
-		srcstr := strconv.Itoa(portPair.Src)
-		if err := server.StartSharing(gctx, "share-"+srcstr, pp.Src); err != nil {
+		srcstr := strconv.Itoa(portPair.src)
+		if err := server.StartSharing(gctx, "share-"+srcstr, pp.src); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("start sharing port: %v", err)
 		}
 
 		g.Go(func() error {
-			log.Println("Forwarding port: " + srcstr + " ==> " + strconv.Itoa(pp.Dst))
-			portForwarder := liveshare.NewPortForwarder(lsclient, server, pp.Dst)
+			log.Println("Forwarding port: " + srcstr + " ==> " + strconv.Itoa(pp.dst))
+			portForwarder := liveshare.NewPortForwarder(lsclient, server, pp.dst)
 			if err := portForwarder.Start(gctx); err != nil {
 				return fmt.Errorf("error forwarding port: %v", err)
 			}
@@ -313,16 +323,17 @@ func forwardPorts(log *output.Logger, codespaceName string, ports []string) erro
 }
 
 type portPair struct {
-	Src, Dst int
+	src, dst int
 }
 
+// getPortPairs parses a list of strings of form "%d:%d" into pairs of numbers.
 func getPortPairs(ports []string) ([]portPair, error) {
 	pp := make([]portPair, 0, len(ports))
 
 	for _, portString := range ports {
 		parts := strings.Split(portString, ":")
 		if len(parts) < 2 {
-			return pp, fmt.Errorf("port pair: '%v' is not valid", portString)
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("port pair: '%v' is not valid", portString)
 		}
 
 		srcp, err := strconv.Atoi(parts[0])
diff --git a/cmd/ghcs/ssh.go b/cmd/ghcs/ssh.go
index e3e51e08e..fd98397fe 100644
--- a/cmd/ghcs/ssh.go
+++ b/cmd/ghcs/ssh.go
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/spf13/cobra"
 )
 
-func NewSSHCmd() *cobra.Command {
+func newSSHCmd() *cobra.Command {
 	var sshProfile, codespaceName string
 	var sshServerPort int
 
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ func NewSSHCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Short: "SSH into a Codespace",
 		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
 		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, args []string) error {
-			return SSH(sshProfile, codespaceName, sshServerPort)
+			return ssh(sshProfile, codespaceName, sshServerPort)
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -36,10 +36,10 @@ func NewSSHCmd() *cobra.Command {
 }
 
 func init() {
-	rootCmd.AddCommand(NewSSHCmd())
+	rootCmd.AddCommand(newSSHCmd())
 }
 
-func SSH(sshProfile, codespaceName string, sshServerPort int) error {
+func ssh(sshProfile, codespaceName string, sshServerPort int) error {
 	apiClient := api.New(os.Getenv("GITHUB_TOKEN"))
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	log := output.NewLogger(os.Stdout, os.Stderr, false)
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ func SSH(sshProfile, codespaceName string, sshServerPort int) error {
 		return fmt.Errorf("get or choose codespace: %v", err)
 	}
 
-	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, token, codespace)
+	lsclient, err := codespaces.ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error connecting to liveshare: %v", err)
 	}
diff --git a/internal/codespaces/codespaces.go b/internal/codespaces/codespaces.go
index 48369cfa0..3214a6dea 100644
--- a/internal/codespaces/codespaces.go
+++ b/internal/codespaces/codespaces.go
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"sort"
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/AlecAivazis/survey/v2"
@@ -25,7 +26,9 @@ func ChooseCodespace(ctx context.Context, apiClient *api.API, user *api.User) (*
 		return nil, ErrNoCodespaces
 	}
 
-	codespaces.SortByCreatedAt()
+	sort.Slice(codespaces, func(i, j int) bool {
+		return codespaces[i].CreatedAt > codespaces[j].CreatedAt
+	})
 
 	codespacesByName := make(map[string]*api.Codespace)
 	codespacesNames := make([]string, 0, len(codespaces))
@@ -62,16 +65,25 @@ type logger interface {
 	Println(v ...interface{}) (int, error)
 }
 
-func ConnectToLiveshare(ctx context.Context, log logger, apiClient *api.API, token string, codespace *api.Codespace) (client *liveshare.Client, err error) {
+func connectionReady(codespace *api.Codespace) bool {
+	return codespace.Environment.Connection.SessionID != "" &&
+		codespace.Environment.Connection.SessionToken != "" &&
+		codespace.Environment.Connection.RelayEndpoint != "" &&
+		codespace.Environment.Connection.RelaySAS != "" &&
+		codespace.Environment.State == api.CodespaceEnvironmentStateAvailable
+}
+
+func ConnectToLiveshare(ctx context.Context, log logger, apiClient *api.API, userLogin, token string, codespace *api.Codespace) (client *liveshare.Client, err error) {
+	var startedCodespace bool
 	if codespace.Environment.State != api.CodespaceEnvironmentStateAvailable {
-		log.Println("Starting your codespace...")
+		startedCodespace = true
+		log.Print("Starting your codespace...")
 		if err := apiClient.StartCodespace(ctx, token, codespace); err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error starting codespace: %v", err)
 		}
 	}
 
-	retries := 0
-	for codespace.Environment.Connection.SessionID == "" || codespace.Environment.State != api.CodespaceEnvironmentStateAvailable {
+	for retries := 0; !connectionReady(codespace); retries++ {
 		if retries > 1 {
 			if retries%2 == 0 {
 				log.Print(".")
@@ -84,16 +96,14 @@ func ConnectToLiveshare(ctx context.Context, log logger, apiClient *api.API, tok
 			return nil, errors.New("timed out while waiting for the codespace to start")
 		}
 
-		codespace, err = apiClient.GetCodespace(ctx, token, codespace.OwnerLogin, codespace.Name)
+		codespace, err = apiClient.GetCodespace(ctx, token, userLogin, codespace.Name)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error getting codespace: %v", err)
 		}
-
-		retries += 1
 	}
 
-	if retries >= 2 {
-		log.Print("\n")
+	if startedCodespace {
+		fmt.Print("\n")
 	}
 
 	log.Println("Connecting to your codespace...")
diff --git a/internal/codespaces/states.go b/internal/codespaces/states.go
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..5c3dcef45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/codespaces/states.go
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+package codespaces
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"fmt"
+	"io/ioutil"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/github/ghcs/api"
+)
+
+// PostCreateStateStatus is a string value representing the different statuses a state can have.
+type PostCreateStateStatus string
+
+func (p PostCreateStateStatus) String() string {
+	return strings.Title(string(p))
+}
+
+const (
+	PostCreateStateRunning PostCreateStateStatus = "running"
+	PostCreateStateSuccess PostCreateStateStatus = "succeeded"
+	PostCreateStateFailed  PostCreateStateStatus = "failed"
+)
+
+// PostCreateState is a combination of a state and status value that is captured
+// during codespace creation.
+type PostCreateState struct {
+	Name   string                `json:"name"`
+	Status PostCreateStateStatus `json:"status"`
+}
+
+// PollPostCreateStates watches for state changes in a codespace,
+// and calls the supplied poller for each batch of state changes.
+// It runs until the context is cancelled or SSH tunnel is closed.
+func PollPostCreateStates(ctx context.Context, log logger, apiClient *api.API, user *api.User, codespace *api.Codespace, poller func([]PostCreateState)) error {
+	token, err := apiClient.GetCodespaceToken(ctx, user.Login, codespace.Name)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("getting codespace token: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	lsclient, err := ConnectToLiveshare(ctx, log, apiClient, user.Login, token, codespace)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("connect to liveshare: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	tunnelPort, connClosed, err := MakeSSHTunnel(ctx, lsclient, 0)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("make ssh tunnel: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	t := time.NewTicker(1 * time.Second)
+	defer t.Stop()
+
+	for {
+		select {
+		case <-ctx.Done():
+			return nil
+		case err := <-connClosed:
+			return fmt.Errorf("connection closed: %v", err)
+		case <-t.C:
+			states, err := getPostCreateOutput(ctx, tunnelPort, codespace)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("get post create output: %v", err)
+			}
+
+			poller(states)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func getPostCreateOutput(ctx context.Context, tunnelPort int, codespace *api.Codespace) ([]PostCreateState, error) {
+	stdout, err := RunCommand(
+		ctx, tunnelPort, sshDestination(codespace),
+		"cat /workspaces/.codespaces/shared/postCreateOutput.json",
+	)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("run command: %v", err)
+	}
+	defer stdout.Close()
+
+	b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(stdout)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("read output: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	var output struct {
+		Steps []PostCreateState `json:"steps"`
+	}
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &output); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("unmarshal output: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	return output.Steps, nil
+}
+
+// TODO(josebalius): this won't be needed soon
+func sshDestination(codespace *api.Codespace) string {
+	user := "codespace"
+	if codespace.RepositoryNWO == "github/github" {
+		user = "root"
+	}
+	return user + "@localhost"
+}